虛詞 Function Words
Common particles, with examples from the Analects
虛詞 do grammatical work — marking possession, mood, aspect, and relation — rather than naming things. The traditional split from 實詞 (content words) is not a sharp one: 之 can be a demonstrative, 其 a pronoun. The difficulty is not that they are missing from dictionaries but that a single character does several jobs, and only its position relative to the surrounding words tells you which.
Choose a character for its uses and examples. Hover or tap any Chinese for a gloss.
之 The most common function word. Used as a possessive marker (like 的), object pronoun (him/her/it), and to create noun phrases from verbs. 3 uses 也 A sentence-final particle that does NOT mean "also" in Classical Chinese. Used as a pause marker after topics and as a final particle for statements, explanations, and definitions. 3 uses 者 A nominalizer meaning "one who" or "that which." Creates noun phrases from verbs or marks topics. Originally meant "this one." 2 uses 乎 An extremely versatile particle. Used for yes/no questions (like 嗎), exclamations (like 啊), rhetorical questions, and also as a preposition equivalent to 於. 4 uses 而 The principal clause-linking conjunction. Connects verbal units with meanings ranging from "and," "but," "yet," to "and then." Context determines the precise meaning. 4 uses 矣 A sentence-final particle indicating completion or change of state, like modern 了. Used in dynamic situations, in contrast to 也 which indicates continuing state. 2 uses 焉 A fusion word combining 於 + 之 (at/in + it), meaning "there," "in it," or "how/where" in questions. Also used as a pause marker or final particle. 2 uses 其 Third-person possessive (his/her/its/their) and a modal particle expressing probability, hope, or rhetorical questioning. Can also mean "perhaps" or "should." 2 uses 以 Originally meaning "to use," now functions as a versatile preposition meaning "with," "by means of," "because of," or a conjunction meaning "in order to." 3 uses 於 The general-purpose preposition, corresponding to English "at," "in," "to," "from," "by," or "than." Extremely common and versatile. 3 uses 則 A conjunction meaning "then" that links clauses. Similar to modern 就. Used in conditional statements and to introduce conclusions. 2 uses 與 As yǔ: conjunction "and" or preposition "with." As yú (final particle): marks questions with softer tone than 乎, or expresses conjecture. 3 uses 然 Means "so, thus, like this" or acts as an adverb-forming suffix (like English -ly). Also used as an affirmative response meaning "yes." 3 uses 諸 A versatile word: (1) plural marker meaning "all the, the various," (2) contraction of 之於 (zhī yú), or (3) contraction of 之乎 (zhī hū) in questions. 2 uses 哉 An exclamatory final particle expressing strong emotion - wonder, admiration, lament, or emphasis. Often follows 乎 or 也 for intensification. 3 uses 斯 A demonstrative pronoun meaning "this" or "these," often referring to what was just mentioned. Also functions as a conjunction meaning "then" or "therefore." 2 uses 所 Turns a following verb into a noun phrase — "that which is verb-ed". Where 者 nominalises the doer, 所 nominalises the thing done to. 2 uses 是 The demonstrative "this". It is not yet the copula — that use belongs to later Chinese, and a modern reader will misparse it. In the Analects the copular work is done by 也. 1 use 夫 Two jobs at opposite ends of the sentence: opening one to raise a topic, closing one to add a sigh. Distinct from 夫 (fū) in 夫子, "the Master", which is an ordinary noun. 2 uses 何 The interrogative — what, why, how. Its meaning is constant; the difficulty is the frames it appears in, since two of them wrap around their object. 3 uses 為 Two words sharing one character. Read wéi it means to act as, to practise, to be; read wèi it means for the sake of. Tone decides which, and only context reveals the tone. 3 uses