何
Usages
3 distinct jobs 何 does in the Analects, each with examples from the text.
1By what means (何以)
With 以 it asks how or by what — not "what with". Read it as a unit.
或曰：「以德報怨，何如？」子曰：「何以報德？以直報怨，以德報德。」
Some one said: "What do you say concerning the principle that injury should be recompensed with kindness?" The Master said: "With what then will you recompense kindness? Recompense injury with justice, and recompense kindness with kindness."
Legge 1861
何以報德
何以 = by what means, functioning as a single interrogative adverb.
子游問孝。子曰：「今之孝者，是謂能養。至於犬馬，皆能有養；不敬，何以別乎？」
Ziyou asked what filial piety was. The Master said: "The filial piety of now-a-days means the support of one's parents. But dogs and horses likewise are able to do something in the way of support; — without reverence, what is there to distinguish the one support given from the other?"
Legge 1861
何以別乎
何以 asks for the means.
子貢問曰：「孔文子何以謂之文也？」子曰：「敏而好學，不恥下問，是以謂之文也。」
Zigong asked, saying: "On what ground did Gongwen get that title of Wen?" The Master said: "He was of an active nature and yet fond of learning, and he was not ashamed to ask and learn of his inferiors! — On these grounds he has been styled Wen."
Legge 1861
何以謂之文也
何以 asking the basis of a name.
子曰：「居上不寬，為禮不敬，臨喪不哀，吾何以觀之哉？」
The Master said: "High station filled without indulgent generosity; ceremonies performed without reverence; mourning conducted without sorrow; — wherewith should I contemplate such ways?"
Legge 1861
吾何以觀之哉
何以 closing a rhetorical question.
子曰：「人而無信，不知其可也。大車無輗，小車無軏，其何以行之哉？」
The Master said: "I do not know how a man without truthfulness is to get on. How can a large carriage be made to go without the cross-bar for yoking the oxen to, or a small carriage without the arrangement for yoking the horses?"
Legge 1861
其何以行之哉
何以 asks for the means.
2What to do about (如…何)
The object sits inside the frame: 如 X 何 asks "what is to be done about X?" This split construction is the usual stumbling block.
子曰：「人而不仁，如禮何？人而不仁，如樂何？」
The Master said: "If a man be without the virtues proper to humanity, what has he to do with the rules of propriety? If a man be without the virtues proper to humanity, what has he to do with music?"
Legge 1861
如禮何
The object 禮 sits between 如 and 何 rather than after them.
子曰：「天生德於予，桓魋其如予何？」
The Master said: "Heaven produced the virtue that is in me. Huan Tui — what can he do to me?"
Legge 1861
如予何
Same frame with a pronoun object — the line Confucius used when threatened.
子曰：「不曰『如之何如之何』者，吾末如之何也已矣。」
The Master said: "When a man is not in the habit of saying — 'What shall I think of this? What shall I think of this?' I can indeed do nothing with him!"
Legge 1861
吾末如之何也已矣
如之何 with 末 in front.
3How about it (何如)
Reversed order, and a fixed question asking for an assessment of something just named.
子貢曰：「貧而無諂，富而無驕，何如？」子曰：「可也。未若貧而樂，富而好禮者也。」子貢曰：「《詩》云：『如切如磋，如琢如磨。』其斯之謂與？」子曰：「賜也，始可與言詩已矣！告諸往而知來者。」
Zigong said: "What do you pronounce concerning the poor man who yet does not flatter, and the rich man who is not proud?" The Master replied: "They will do; but they are not equal to him, who, though poor, is yet cheerful, and to him, who, though rich, loves the rules of propriety." Zigong replied: "It is said in the Book of Poetry, 'As you cut and then file, as you carve and then polish.' — The meaning is the same, I apprehend, as that which you have just expressed." The Master said: "With one like Ci, I can begin to talk about the odes. I told him one point, and he knew its proper sequence."
Legge 1861
何如
Used on its own to invite a judgement. Contrast 如何, which asks what to do.
子路、曾皙、冉有、公西華侍坐。子曰：「以吾一日長乎爾，毋吾以也。居則曰：「不吾知也！』如或知爾，則何以哉？」子路率爾而對曰：「千乘之國，攝乎大國之間，加之以師旅，因之以饑饉；由也為之，比及三年，可使有勇，且知方也。」夫子哂之。「求！爾何如？」對曰：「方六七十，如五六十，求也為之，比及三年，可使足民。如其禮樂，以俟君子。」「赤！爾何如？」對曰：「非曰能之，願學焉。宗廟之事，如會同，端章甫，願為小相焉。」「點！爾何如？」鼓瑟希，鏗爾，舍瑟而作。對曰：「異乎三子者之撰。」子曰：「何傷乎？亦各言其志也。」曰：「莫春者，春服既成。冠者五六人，童子六七人，浴乎沂，風乎舞雩，詠而歸。」夫子喟然歎曰：「吾與點也！」三子者出，曾皙後。曾皙曰：「夫三子者之言何如？」子曰：「亦各言其志也已矣。」曰：「夫子何哂由也？」曰：「為國以禮，其言不讓，是故哂之。」「唯求則非邦也與？」「安見方六七十如五六十而非邦也者？」「唯赤則非邦也與？」「宗廟會同，非諸侯而何？赤也為之小，孰能為之大？」
Zilu, Zeng Xi, Ran You, and Gongxi Hua were sitting by the Master. He said to them: "Though I am a day or so older than you, do not think of that. From day to day you are saying, 'We are not known.' If some ruler were to know you, what would you like to do?" Zilu hastily and lightly replied: "Suppose the case of a State of ten thousand chariots; let it be straitened between other large States; let it be suffering from invading armies; and to this let there be added a famine in corn and in all vegetables: — if I were entrusted with the government of it, in three years' time I could make the people to be bold, and to recognize the rules of righteous conduct." The Master smiled at him. Turning to Ran You, he said: "Qiu, what are your wishes?" Qiu replied: "Suppose a state of sixty or seventy li square, or one of fifty or sixty, and let me have the government of it; — in three years' time, I could make plenty to abound among the people. As to teaching them the rules of propriety and music, I must wait for the rise of a superior man to do that." "And what are your wishes, Chi?" said the Master to Gongxi Hua. Chi replied: "I do not say that my ability extends to these things, but I should like to learn them. At the services of the ancestral temple, and at the audiences of the princes with the emperor, I should like, dressed in the dark-colored cap and robes, to act as a small assistant." Last of all, the Master asked Zeng Xi: "Dian, what are your wishes?" Dian, pausing as he was playing on his lute, while it was yet twanging, laid the instrument aside, and rose. "My wishes," he said, "are different from the cherished purposes of these three gentlemen." "What harm is there in that?" said the Master; "do you also, as well as they, speak out your wishes." Dian then said: "In this, the last month of spring, with the dress of the season all complete, along with five or six young men who have assumed the cap, and six or seven boys, I would wash in the Yi, enjoy the breeze among the rain altars, and return home singing." The Master heaved a sigh and said: "I give my approval to Dian."
Legge 1861
爾何如
何如 asks for an assessment.
子貢問曰：「何如斯可謂之士矣？」子曰：「行己有恥，使於四方，不辱君命，可謂士矣。」曰：「敢問其次。」曰：「宗族稱孝焉，鄉黨稱弟焉。」曰：「敢問其次。」曰：「言必信，行必果，硜硜然小人哉！抑亦可以為次矣。」曰：「今之從政者何如？」子曰：「噫！斗筲之人，何足算也。」
Zigong asked, saying: "What qualities must a man possess to entitle him to be called an officer?" The Master said: "He who in his conduct of himself maintains a sense of shame, and when sent to any quarter will not disgrace his prince's commission, deserves to be called an officer." Zigong next said: "I venture to ask who may be placed in the next lower rank?" and he was answered: "He whom the circle of his relatives pronounce to be filial, whom his fellow-villagers and neighbors pronounce to be fraternal." Again the disciple asked: "I venture to ask about the class still next in order." The Master said: "They are determined to be sincere in what they say, and to carry out what they do. They are obstinate little men. Yet, perhaps they may make the next class." Zigong finally inquired: "Of what sort are those of the present day, who engage in government?" The Master said: "Pooh! they are so many peck-and-hamper people, not worth being taken into account."
Legge 1861
何如斯可謂之士矣
何如 opening a definition.
Combos
8 fixed patterns built on 何, with the role each plays and where to read them.
"How about...?" / "What do you think of...?"
5.18 子曰：「臧文仲居蔡，山節藻梲，何如其知也？」
Used to ask for opinions or evaluations. Often in dialogue asking about a person or proposal.
"What can be done about...?" / "How...?"
15.16 子曰：「不曰『如之何如之何』者，吾末如之何也已矣。」
A common rhetorical question pattern expressing uncertainty or helplessness about a situation.
"How?" / "By what means?" / "Why?"
3.26 子曰：「居上不寬，為禮不敬，臨喪不哀，吾何以觀之哉？」
Asks about the reason, method, or means. 以 serves as "by means of."
"What does it mean?" / "What is meant by...?"
3.13 王孫賈問曰：「與其媚於奧，寧媚於竈，何謂也？」子曰：「不然，獲罪於天，無所禱也。」
Asks for clarification or definition of a term or statement.
"Why...?" / "What is one doing?"
15.5 子曰：「無為而治者，其舜也與？夫何為哉，恭己正南面而已矣。」
Asks about purpose or reason for action.
"Why must...?" / "There is no need to..."
11.14 魯人為長府。閔子騫曰：「仍舊貫，如之何？何必改作？」子曰：「夫人不言，言必有中。」
Rhetorical question suggesting an action is unnecessary.
"What difficulty is there?" / "What problem is there?"
7.2 子曰：「默而識之，學而不厭，誨人不倦，何有於我哉？」
Rhetorical expression meaning something is easy or presents no obstacle.
"How is it sufficient to...?" / "It's not worth..."
9.27 子曰：「衣敝縕袍，與衣狐貉者立，而不恥者，其由也與？『不忮不求，何用不臧？』」子路終身誦之。子曰：「是道也，何足以臧？」
Rhetorical expression dismissing something as insufficient or unimportant.